What Pesticide Has Been Primarily Used to Control Mosquito Populations?
Mosquito Control Program Description
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Mosquito Control Plan Description
Mosquito Biological science
Mosquito Surveillance
Mosquito-Borne Disease Surveillance
Musquito Control Options
Future Prospects and Program Issues
Program Clarification
The Maryland Department of Agriculture (MDA), Mosquito Control Section, is responsible for administering and implementing mosquito command within the State of Maryland. Typical projects undertaken for mosquito command include Public Health arboviral surveillance and testing, mosquito population surveillance activities, source reduction, biological control initiatives, basis and aeriform application of insecticides and public instruction. The Musquito Control Program has existed since July, 1956 and currently operates under potency of Sections v-401 through 5-408, Agriculture Article, Maryland Annotated Code. Participation in the program is voluntary and requires local government and/or customs funding. The Department in 2011 entered into cooperative agreements with 16 counties for mosquito control services and conducted activities in 1,760 communities with a total estimated population of 725,000 residents. The plan employs 14 MDA classified positions, iii long term contractual positions and lx-lxx seasonal technicians. The authoritative office, and operation headquarters for Anne Arundel County, is located in Annapolis. Regional offices are located in College Park, Hollywood, and Salisbury.
Mosquito command in Maryland is conducted according to the concept of Integrated Pest Management (IPM). IPM is based on ecological, economic and social criteria and integrates these multidisciplinary methodologies to develop pest direction strategies that are practical and effective to protect public health and the environment and improve the quality of life for Maryland residents and visitors. An IPM program consists of surveillance for larvae and developed mosquitoes; establishment of action thresholds; and selection of appropriate control strategies, using the best available technology. A practitioner of IPM must be knowledgeable of the biological science and ecology of mosquitoes, monitoring techniques and best management practices.
Mosquito Biological science
Mosquitoes are members of the family Culicidae in the order Diptera (true flies). Adult mosquitoes are distinguished from other flies by the presence of a long proboscis and scales on the margins and veins of the wing. Males differ from females by having feathery antennae and mouthparts not suited for piercing skin.
Mosquitoes are insects that develop through four singled-out life stages - egg, larva, pupa and adult. Only adult females feed on blood which is a required source of poly peptide for egg development. Males and females feed on institute nectar as a source of carbohydrates.
At that place are three basic types of mosquito eggs - those laid singly on the water surface, each egg being buoyed by floats; eggs laid on the water surface in groups or rafts; and eggs laid singly out of the water on a surface that will after flood. Mosquitoes which eolith eggs on the h2o surface are usually known equally permanent h2o breeders and include the genera Anopheles,Coquillettidia ,Culex andCuliseta. Floodwater mosquitoes lay their eggs on a moist substrate, out of the water, and represent ane of the most successful reproductive strategies in the animal kingdom. Female floodwater mosquitoes are attracted by chemical stimuli to oviposition sites and are non dependent on h2o for oviposition, hence weather has less impact on the reproductive success of floodwater species than on permanent water breeders. Floodwater mosquito genera includeAedes,Ochlerotatus andPsorophora.
All musquito larvae are aquatic. The 60 species known to occur in Maryland have adjusted to a wide range of larval habitats, including swamps, marshes, tree holes, septic ditches, rock pools, etc. All of the breeding sites have a common characteristic of stagnant pools not subject to significant current of air or wave action or water flow. Additionally, the convenance sites generally have a low or non-existent population of parasites or predators that casualty on mosquito larvae. Consequently, flowing streams, tidal creeks, large ponds, lakes and other large water bodies are not typical musquito breeding sites. Larvae feed on microorganisms and particles of organic matter. Mosquito larvae must have access to atmospheric oxygen, which is obtained by means of a siphon tube that penetrates the water surface or, in some species, pierces the roots of aquatic plants. The larval stage lasts from four to several days and contains four separate developmental periods termed instars.
The pupal phase is besides aquatic but the pupa can complete evolution on a moist surface. It is during the pupal stage that the transformation from an aquatic larva to a terrestrial adult takes identify. The pupal phase lasts only a few days.
Developed female person mosquitoes mate once during their lifetime. This occurs shortly after emergence from the pupal case. The claret feeding habits of the female person vary between species. Some are general feeders while others feed but on specific groups of vertebrates such as birds or reptiles. The flying habits are also variable, with some species rarely flying more than several hundred feet from their breeding sites and others flying 20 miles or more.
Mosquito Surveillance
Modern pest management requires surveillance information in order to plan and evaluate control work. Field surveys are the foundation of an constructive program. Data on the mosquitoes with the greatest potential to adversely affect public health and comfort, including data on mosquito density and distribution, are essential in order to program and bear effective control measures. In Maryland, the species occurring in the greatest affluence, or that have the greatest impact on human comfort, economic growth and public health, areOchlerotatus sollicitans,Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus,Aedes albopictus,Aedes vexans,Ochlerotatus canadensis,Anopheles crucians/bradleyi,Anopheles quadrimaculatus,Culex pipiens,Culex salinarius,Coquillettidia perturbans andPsorophora columbiae. SeveralAedes and Ochlerotatusspp. andCoq. perturbans are implicated in the manual of eastern equine encephalitis to humans, equines and ratites. Dog heartworm in canines is the most mutual musquito-transmitted disease in Maryland, with several vector species.Culex species are of import vectors of West Nile encephalitis and St. Louis encephalitis.Aedes albopictus, popularly known as the Asian tiger musquito, is a contempo introduction to the Maryland mosquito brute. It was introduced into the The states from Asia by the international used-tire trade and has spread throughout much of the country via interstate tire shipments. This species has become a major pest in several urban areas of Maryland and is a vector of Westward Nile encephalitis. The newest add-on to the mosquito fauna of Maryland isAedes japonicus, showtime constitute in Frederick County in 2000.Ae. japonicus is besides a casher of the international tire merchandise and an splendid vector of disease.
Larval surveillance requires extensive logistical grooming due to the size and remoteness of many breeding areas. The largest area of breeding area exists in the southern Eastern Shore region of Maryland. In general, mosquito larval habitat is most widespread in the littoral apparently. Loftier-level aerial photography and satellite imagery are used for rural areas to locate potential breeding areas based on soil and plant community associations. In urban environments, Ae. albopictus and Cx. pipiens are plant in obscure breeding sites in grand to 1000 searches.
Potential breeding areas are field of study to "ground truthing" to confirm the location of the sites and measure the presence of mosquito larvae. Confirmed breeding areas are mapped on United States Coast and Geodetic topographic maps (calibration one:24,000), or larger calibration city maps, and used every bit a reference for future surveillance. Frequent and regular inspections of breeding areas are carried out from March through September to determine larval density and species composition.
Larval surveillance data are used to guide the course of the control program and are the most important field information available to the mosquito control manager. This data is used in the decision-making process of whether or non to initiate control efforts, what type of control to employ and in evaluating the effectiveness of the command.
Convenance areas that consistently produce big numbers of important pest or vector species and are located within flight range of a community are considered as potential sites for command. SeveralAedes andOchlerotatus spp. are capable of long distance (up to 20 miles or more) dispersal flights. Other species, such equallyAe. albopictus,Oc. canadensis, andCoq. perturbans are weaker fliers (i-5 miles). CulexandAnopheles mosquitoes take a much more restricted flight range than do nighAedes andOchlerotatus mosquitoes and convenance areas for the one-time species more than two miles from a community are not considered for command. All breeding sites inside a customs, or close to the perimeter of a community, are designated as primary command sites for control of mosquito larvae.
Meteorological conditions significantly affect breeding sites. A prolonged drought will evaporate the surface water from a wetland and temporarily halt musquito larval production. All the same, a drought will also eliminate the population of mosquito predators and exacerbate mosquito breeding, particularly in areas producing table salt marsh Ochlerotatus species, when surface water returns. A summer with frequent rainfall and/or flooding tides will maintain a higher water level, which usually favors larval production ofAnopheles andCulex species, merely may besides boost the population of predators and eliminate mosquito production. Therefore, a practiced larval surveillance programme cannot be static. It must be dynamic and flexible to adjust fluctuations in atmospheric condition and land utilise patterns.
Surveillance for adult mosquitoes is conducted using traps and landing rate counts. Traps are an piece of cake, relatively depression price way to obtain an index of the number of mosquitoes in an expanse, but, information are subject to wide variation. Trap data provide a good historical tape, if trap locations are constant from yr to year. Trap collections are fourth dimension-consuming to process and the data on mosquito abundance is oft delayed for several days after the grab is made and of reduced value from the standpoint of operational control. For arboviral surveillance, traps utilize carbon dioxide as an attractant to increase trap capture rates..
In Maryland, a trap designed past the Communicable Illness Eye (CDC) is the trap type generally used to monitor pest and vector adult mosquitoes. The CDC trap is battery-powered and easily portable. For pest surveillance, the trap uses no source of attraction other than a small light. A drove of more than 10 anthropophagous (human biting) female person mosquitoes per night of trap performance is considered to be the level which causes discomfort and/or complaints from the majority of people. The light trap activeness threshold for footing spraying of developed mosquitoes is 10 per trap night. The action threshold to suppress pest populations of adult mosquitoes past aeriform spraying (application of insecticide past an aircraft) is a low-cal trap collection of 100 female mosquitoes.
Landing rate counts provide firsthand indicators of adult mosquito activeness. The counts are taken for a short menstruation of time at specific, predetermined locations. Inspectors serve every bit "allurement" to attract mosquitoes which attempt to blood feed. A count is made of the number of mosquitoes landing on the readily visible portions of the inspectors' bodies, below the waist, during a two minute interval. Landing rate counts for salt marshOchlerotatus species andAe. albopictus tin be taken during daylight considering these species will actively attempt to claret feed at that time. However, most other species, especiallyAnopheles spp. andCulex spp., must be sampled during twilight periods, or at night, because of their nocturnal activity. The action threshold for landing rate counts to justify ground spraying for the control of adult mosquitoes is 3 mosquitoes in two minutes. The activeness threshold for aerial spraying is 12 mosquitoes per minute.
Musquito-Borne Affliction Surveillance
The Maryland Department of Agriculture (MDA) and the Maryland Department of Health and Mental Hygiene (DHMH) collaborate to bear a surveillance programme to detect mosquito- borne viruses of public health business concern. The program monitors the occurrence of Zika Virus, eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus, Due west Nile virus (WNV), and St. Louis encephalitis (SLE) and other viruses in mosquitoes, wild birds, domestic animals and humans. These viruses are maintained in nature in mosquito cycles. Isolation of viral presence in the musquito wheel provides an early on warning of virus manual and is cause for increasing public awareness campaigns to reduce risk of illness and to take proactive steps for mosquito control to further reduce the risk to humans, domestic animals and zoo animals.
West Nile virus has affected every region of Maryland and is now considered equally being endemic throughout the state.
Mosquito Command Options
The primary goal of the Mosquito Command Section of MDA is to prevent the occurrence of mosquito-borne disease in humans and domestic animals. When show of mosquito-borne disease is detected, measures are taken to reduce vector musquito populations to equally low a level as practical. Later on the surveillance and demographic data are analyzed and a decision is made that control efforts are justified, several options are available. These range from complex to simple, inexpensive to costly, and short-term to long-term. What pick to utilize is dictated by the extent of the musquito problem and the available resources.
Source Reduction Using Open up Marsh H2o Management (OMWM) - OMWM is a water management technique directed toward the command of salt marsh Ochlerotatus larval mosquitoes without using pesticides. OMWM is an instance of applied ecology. Information technology accomplishes control past incorporating physical control (digging ditches and ponds in the marsh) and biological control (fish live in the ditches and ponds and eat mosquito larvae). It is a long lasting form of control and a system that, when properly designed, has a life expectancy of 20 years or longer. Due to this longevity, OMWM is the near economic grade of command, despite the initial high investment. OMWM non only provides fantabulous control of mosquitoes at their source, it utilizes wildlife direction techniques to enhance the high salt marsh habitat for a variety of game and non-game species of fish and wild animals. The ponds constructed for OMWM projects provide habitat for submerged aquatic grasses, and the ditches enhance the tidal marsh nutrient web while reducing food flow into the Chesapeake Bay.
Modernistic Maryland OMWM techniques are designed to reach long-lasting, effective control of mosquito populations while maintaining and oft enhancing the ecology of the tidal marsh environment. These management techniques are considered by many ecology scientists to be acceptable alterations to the tidal marsh habitat since they promote the objectives of mosquito control agencies, pesticide reduction advocacy groups, and environmental protection groups. Other environmental scientists contend that no physical change of the tidal marsh surroundings is acceptable. For case, there is concern that OMWM changes may adversely bear on the black rails, a species listed as in need of conservation by the Natural Heritage Program of the Maryland Department of Natural Resources. Since 1991, OMWM has been suspended in Maryland because regulatory agencies have near stopped the consequence of necessary permits. Most source reduction projects since 1991 accept been maintenance of previously managed areas.
Biological Command - Larvivorous fish, invertebrate predators, parasites and diseases to control mosquitoes have been widely used throughout the globe. Almost ever, biological command agents are used against mosquito eggs, larvae and pupae. Biological control of developed mosquitoes using birds, bats, dragonflies and frogs has been advocated, just supportive data are anecdotal. There is no documented study to show that bats, purple martins, or other predators eat enough adult mosquitoes to be effective control agents. The Mosquito Command Department does not advocate the establishment of bat boxes by the public due to the increased risk of homo exposure to rabies.
The use of fish is particularly effective in controlling the aquatic stages of the mosquito. The Musquito Control Plan maintains several rearing ponds throughout Maryland to propagate Gambusia holbrooki (musquito fish) for distribution to advisable mosquito breeding sites. The widespread apply of larvivorous fish such as Gambusia, a native fish to the Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries, has been discouraged by the Maryland Department of Natural Resources due to business concern the fish may prey upon threatened or endangered species of amphibians and fish. Equally a event of this concern, the biological control initiative using fish has been reduced to stocking them only in artificial wetlands, such equally stormwater retention ponds.
Temporary Command- Command of mosquitoes with the utilize of insecticides is commonly referred to as temporary control because the non-residual insecticides used in the Maryland plan provide simply short-term reduction of musquito numbers. The temporary control program is divided into 2 categories - larviciding and adulticiding. Insecticide applications are made under the supervision of certified pesticide applicators, pest control category Eight, and regulated by State and federal laws. Several certified applicators are employed by the Musquito Control Section. No restricted employ pesticides are applied in Maryland for mosquito command by State or local government agencies.
Larviciding - Insecticide application directed against larval mosquitoes is an important component of an IPM musquito control program. Larviciding is the most efficient type of temporary control. An important part of the mission of the Maryland Musquito Control Programme is to prevent, or significantly reduce, adult mosquito annoyance to humans, pets and domestic livestock. It is more efficient to eradicate or substantially diminish a brood of mosquitoes while they are concentrated as larvae in the aquatic habitat than to control them as adults. For example, the developed mosquitoes produced on one acre of breeding area can disperse over 50,000 acres, assuming a flight range of five miles.
All larvicide applications are based on a demonstrated presence of mosquito larvae. Larval inspections are conducted by trained personnel capable of identifying instar stages of mosquitoes and distinguishing amongst diverse genera. Inspections for Aedes and Ochlerotatus larvae must exist conducted quickly subsequently heavy rains or flooding tides because, during the summer, larvae can develop at a rate of one instar per day. Therefore, convenance sites must be located and treated inside five days after flooding. In most instances, when widescale flooding has occurred, only a pocket-size portion of the breeding expanse can be inspected and a determination made on the demand for treatment.
Larvicides are applied using manually carried or vehicle-mounted spreading equipment or from specially equipped aircraft. Footing equipment awarding is economic and has the advantage of being able to specifically apply insecticides to larval breeding sites just, as opposed to aerial awarding where an unabridged surface area is treated and much insecticide falls on dry out ground. However, shipping are needed when big areas must be treated inside the short time bachelor for treatment. Aircraft are able to employ insecticide evenly over large areas that would be difficult or impossible to traverse on the footing.
All larvicide applications are made under permits issued by the Maryland Department of the Environment. Allow applications are made on a canton basis for specific areas within the county and for individual insecticides. The let allows a limited number of insecticide applications inside a specific time frame. The permit review process is time consuming and frequently prevents the timely awarding of mosquito larvicides to new or previously undocumented breeding sites.
The insecticides currently used for larviciding in Maryland includeBacillus thuringensis var.israelensis (B.t.i.), a naturally produced bacterial toxin, and methoprene (Altosid), a synthetically produced insect growth regulator. B.t.i. is i of the to the lowest degree toxic materials available for larviciding and, when applied from the ground, it is usually effective. It is the most ordinarily used larvicide for basis application. B.t.i. must be ingested past the larvae in sufficient concentration to cause expiry by disruption of the function of the larval midgut. Due to the poor operational results institute in our quality control evaluations, B.t.i. is seldom applied by shipping in Maryland. B.t.i. produces varying levels of control depending on h2o quality, corporeality of and blazon of vegetation and species to be controlled. Under ideal weather condition, B.t.i. will control larvae for upwards to 24 hours.
Bacillus sphaericus is a relatively new bacteria larvicidal production that is very effective againstCulex mosquitoes. It is used in Maryland primarily to commandCulex salinarius andCulex pipiens.Bacillus sphaericus tin can be effective confronting Culexmosquitoes for up to 21 days.
Ii other bacterial products have recently been registered every bit mosquito larvicides. Both provide control over a wider range of mosquito genera and habitat types than B.t.i.. A product that combines B.t.i. and B. shaericus to produce an additive toxic effect controls multiple mosquito genera where they occur in the aforementioned breeding habitat.Sacchropolyspora spinose, the almost recently registered bacterial larvicide production, appears to provide consequent control over about mosquito genera and is available in extended release formulations that control larvae over long periods. Both products are more expensive than B.t.i. (approximately 5 times) and have limited, special use in Maryland.
Methoprene is the nigh commonly used larvicide for aerial application and is also commonly practical past footing equipment. This product provides xc-100% control of emergence of adult floodwater mosquitoes. There has been no observed negative environmental impact equally a outcome of the utilise of methoprene for mosquito command in Maryland to our knowledge.
Larviciding is not allowed on certain State parks, Federal refuges or Assateague Isle National Seashore. This is an important cistron impacting mosquito command near these Country and federal lands, which serve as a source of adult mosquitoes to the nearby residential areas.
Criteria for Application of Larvicides
Populations of mosquito larvae are sampled using a standard dipper which is immersed and quickly withdrawn from water. An assessment of the number of larvae, instar stages and number of pupae, is made. Field identification of mosquito larvae is made to the genus level. Wetlands are sampled to determine the presence, spatial distribution and density of a larval population. A decision to use a larvicide to control a larval population takes into consideration the type of musquito and the distance to a residential expanse.
The physical nature of some larval habitats makes standard larval dipping difficult; samples may not be representative of the bodily larval populations. In sites such equally, but not express to, dredged spoils containments, wetlands with heavy phragmites inroad, cattail ponds, stormwater management ponds and containers, the use of larvicides is warranted based on the observed presence of larvae, historical treatment records and/or adult mosquito surveillance information. Wetlands and containers that lie in or well-nigh residential sites volition exist treated on the demonstrated presence of larvae.
A larvicide may be applied to a wetland for the control of musquito larvae when larvae are present at a minimum average of one larva per dip. Breeding habitats with a minimum larval density of one per dip and that lie within a two mile radius of an surface area to be protected may be treated. The breeding sites of Ae. vexans and Coq. perturbans volition exist treated if they lie within a v mile radius of an surface area to be protected. For long altitude flying salt marsh species, Oc. sollicitans and Oc. taeniorhynchus, breeding sites may exist treated without regard to distances to protection areas.
Adulticiding - Despite all efforts to prevent adult mosquito populations from reaching annoyance levels, it is inevitable that outbreaks will occur. When this happens, information technology is the mosquito control manager'southward responsibility to reduce mosquito numbers to a indicate below the action threshold to protect public health and comfort. Adulticiding is most effective when the adult musquito population is localized or when spraying is carried out uniformly over a large expanse to prevent reinfestation of treated areas. Multiple spraying, spaced 2 to 3 days apart, may exist necessary to reduce the population of adult mosquitoes to a low level, particularly if mosquito-borne disease transmission is possible.
Localized developed mosquito populations which exceed the action threshold can exist managed with an application of insecticide dispersed from truck-mounted, ultra low volume (ULV), aerosol generators. The principle insecticide applied for adult mosquito control in Maryland is permethrin, synergized with piperonyl butoxide (PBO). ULV units disperse the synergized pyrethroid insecticides (0.003 lb. active ingredient per acre) over an effective swath width of 300 anxiety. Applications ideally are made when mosquito activity is high, current of air velocity is 2 to 10 mph, air temperature is between 60 to 85 degrees F, relative humidity is high and a temperature inversion exists.
Aerial spraying for adult musquito control can be conducted when a big number of mosquitoes, exceeding the aeriform spray activity threshold, infest a customs or populated area of 500 acres, or more. Spraying is conducted with a Section-owned Beechcraft Male monarch-Air, twin-engine, fixed-wing aircraft equipped with an Ag-Nav global positioning system. The chief insecticide used for aeriform adulticiding is naled (Trumpet EC) practical at the charge per unit of 0.eight to 1.2 fluid ounce per acre (0.08 to 0.10 lb. a.i./acre). Aerial spraying is conducted when weather conditions favor high mosquito activity and maximum retentivity of the spray particles inside the handling area. Night vision technology has enabled the aircraft to be operated at night since 2005, resulting in a higher degree of mosquito control. Due to the high mosquito population needed for justification (12 mosquitoes per minute landing rate count and/or 100 mosquitoes per light trap), most aeriform spraying is conducted in the southern Eastern Shore region of Maryland.
Public Education- Mosquito control staff members meet with the press, attend community meetings and communicate one to one with residents to emphasize what steps can be taken past individuals to reduce mosquito problems. Cleanup of old tires, buckets, cans and any other water holding containers can significantly reduce musquito breeding sites in a community, especially in parts of the Land with few natural wetlands. Window screening will keep mosquitoes outdoors. Pet owners are urged to have their dogs protected against domestic dog heartworm affliction, which is transmitted by mosquitoes. Owners of horses and other equine are urged to accept their animals vaccinated twice a year to prevent occurrence of eastern equine encephalitis.
An initiative in 2000 and 2001 conducted large scale mailing of information about Ae. albopictus and its control. This information was distributed in communities known to exist infested with Ae. albopictus and included parts of Anne Arundel, Baltimore, Calvert and Prince George's counties and Baltimore City. Residents were urged to conduct neighborhood cleanups to remove containers used as mosquito breeding sites. The evaluation of this endeavour has not been able to demonstrate any appreciable effect on reducing the mosquito breeding containers in residential areas.
Traditionally, homes and commercial developments were sited away from wetlands and located in breezy, open areas. However, during the by 4 decades, there has been a shift in development areas. Homes often are built adjacent to, or in, wetland areas. This occurs because of several possible factors, including: (1) lack of, or greater expense for, upland sites; (2) a want to live on or nigh waterfront property; (three) macerated public concern about mosquito bites or mosquito-transmitted disease; and (iv) reliance on government, private contractors or self to alleviate problems associated with wetlands. In addition to mosquitoes, residences nigh wetlands frequently are impacted negatively past the presence of deer flies, horse flies, stable flies, biting midges ("no-come across-ums"), black flies and ticks.
The Mosquito Control Section receives numerous service requests from residents of communities in or virtually wetlands who were unaware that their community was prone to infestation past biting arthropods prior to moving there. Planning and zoning agencies could restrict development in areas known to exist potential sites of arthropod-borne affliction and nuisance. At the very least, it should be an ethical obligation of realtors to disembalm to buyers that living in or most some types of wetlands volition subject residents to greater than normal exposure to insect and tick bites. The Mosquito Control Section is bachelor to advise planning and zoning agencies and realtors on known mosquito producing wetlands. This public education would reduce insecticide use by government agencies, contractors and homeowners, and have other ecological benefits.
Products Advertised for Mosquito Control - In that location are numerous products being advertised today alleging that they are constructive for mosquito command. Unfortunately, these products have limited or no value in reducing mosquito annoyance.
A mechanical trap (the Mosquito Magnet(R)) is promoted as being capable of "controlling" adult mosquitoes in an area of upward to 1 acre. This trap was evaluated by MDA in 2001 and, while it was establish to be a good tool for collecting musquito specimens for surveillance purposes, the claim of control could not be corroborated.
Electronic devices that emit a loftier frequency audio are advertised every bit being effective to repel mosquitoes, too as other pests. These claims are false. The devices do non deter female mosquitoes from attempting to bite, nor exercise they cause mosquitoes to flee from the sound.
Electrocuting devices, popularly known every bit "bug zappers", do not control mosquitoes. Studies have shown that mosquitoes make up less than i percentage of the insects killed by the zappers. Beneficial insects such as beetles and moths make upwards the bulk of the catch.
Plants such equally the Citrosa institute are claimed to have a mosquito-repelling quality. The Citrosa found is a genetically engineered houseplant that incorporates tissue cultures of the grass that produces citronella oil into hybrid varieties of geranium to produce a cultivar that emits a citronella-like odour. Citronella oil does repel mosquitoes, and it is a logical assumption that the Citrosa plant's odour would produce similar results. Yet, the citronella-similar aroma of the Citrosa plant does non repel mosquitoes. Mosquitoes have been observed resting on the Citrosa leaves. Crushing the Citrosa leaf and rubbing it on the peel does not repel mosquitoes. The idea of the Citrosa plant was audio, only the results do not prove the hypothesis that it is effective in repelling mosquitoes.
Future Prospects and Plan Issues
Most people in Maryland are not willing to accept big populations of nuisance mosquitoes or the possibility of mosquito-borne disease occurring in their family unit. The demand for mosquito control as a quality of life issue is likely to remain strong in many areas. Strategies for future control should ideally keep to diversify to cope with insecticide resistance management and irresolute societal expectations. However, the diversity of control options continues to diminish as a issue of regulations and markets.
Creation of artificial wetlands in suburban areas for stormwater management and restoration of wetlands in agricultural fields farther complicate the upshot by providing new mosquito production areas. Best management practices (BMP's) should be established that incorporate musquito command concerns in the planning and maintenance of these created wetland habitats.
Information technology volition be a significant challenge to provide a satisfactory musquito control program in the future. The most significant issue impacting the Musquito Command Program is the increased difficulty of controlling mosquitoes at the breeding site. Wetland management, or source reduction, has near ceased to exist a meaning program component due to wetland protection regulations and opposition past the Maryland Department of Natural Resources and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Larviciding is effective, but costly, in terms of coin and labor and a comprehensive statewide larvicide program is beyond the scope of the electric current programme resources. The occurrence of new diseases (such equally the Zika virus) or the resurrection of one-time diseases (such as malaria, yellow fever, etc.) are real threats that may pose significant issues in the future.
Last updated: April 2016
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Source: https://mda.maryland.gov/plants-pests/pages/mosquito_control_program_description.aspx